Interpreting English Tenses

- A Compositional Approach -

Contents


             
Preface v
Acknowledgments vii
 
Introduction 1
  0.1. Aim 1  
  0.2. Outline 2  
  0.3. Organization 5  
  Notes to Introduction 6  
 
PART I TOWARD A COMPOSITIONAL THEORY OF TENSE IN ENGLISH
 
Chapter 1 Basic Assumptions and Theories 10
  1.0. Introduction 10  
  1.1. Finite vs. Nonfinite Forms 11  
  1.2. AUX-as-Main-Verb Hypothesis 11  
  1.3. Two Absolute Tenses 16  
  1.4. Four Temporal Notions 19  
  1.5. Modality 22  
  1.6. Summary 26  
  Notes to Chapter 1 26  
 
Chapter 2 A Compositional Tense Theory 31
  2.0. Introduction 31  
  2.1. Tense Structure Level 32  
  2.1.1. Finite Predicates 32  
  2.1.2. Non?nite Predicates 34  
  2.2. Tense Interpretation Level 38  
  2.2.1. Finite Predicates 39  
  2.2.2. Non?nite Predicates 43  
  2.2.2.1. Basic Examples 44  
  2.2.2.2. Complicated Examples 49  
  2.3. Summary 59  
  Notes to Chapter 2 60  
 
Chapter 3 Temporal Schemata 66
  3.0. Introduction 66  
  3.1. Simple Tenses 66  
  3.1.1. The Present Tense 67  
  3.1.2. The Past Tense 69  
  3.2. Complex Tenses 71  
  3.2.1. The Future 72  
  3.2.2. The Perfect Tense 75  
  3.3. Orientational Event Time 81  
  3.4. The Progressive Form 82  
  3.5. Summary 88  
  Notes to Chapter 3 88  
 
PART II APPLICATIONS
 
Chapter 4 The Mechanism of Interpreting the Present Perfect 94
  4.0. Introduction 94  
  4.1. Dual Structure of the Perfect Tense 97  
  4.1.1. Specification by Time Adverbials 98  
  4.1.2. Entailment of the State 100  
  4.2. From Original Schematic Semantic Value to Pragmatic Categories 104  
  4.2.1. How to Interpret the Present Perfect Form as Expressing the Present Perfect Tense 104  
  4.2.2. Pragmatic Categories 106  
  4.3. Two Types of Cognitive Criteria 108  
  4.3.1. The Perfective-Continuous Criterion 109  
  4.3.1.1. Separation vs. Merger 109  
  4.3.1.2. Conclusive vs. Non-Conclusive 111  
  4.3.1.3. The Perfective-Continuous Scale 112  
  4.3.2. The Speci?c-General Criterion 115  
  4.3.2.1. The Speci?c-General Distinction 115  
  4.3.2.2. Evidence 117  
  4.3.2.3. Close-Up Reference vs. Bird's-Eye View Reference 119  
  4.3.2.4. Recency vs. Remoteness 120  
  4.3.2.5. The Specific-General Scale 121  
  4.3.3. The S(pecific)-G(eneral) Criterion and the C(ontinuous)-Perfect 125  
  4.3.3.1. Continuative and Habitual Perfects 126  
  4.3.3.2. Evidence 127  
  4.3.3.3. Peripheral Cases 129  
  4.4. The Relationship between Four Prototypical Categories and Peripheral Areas 131  
  4.5. Remaining Issues 134  
  4.5.1. The Resultative Perfect 134  
  4.5.1.1. The Status of the Resultative Perfect 134  
  4.5.1.2. Analysis 137  
  4.5.2. The "Hot-News" Perfect 140  
  4.5.2.1. What Is the "Hot-News" Perfect? 140  
  4.5.2.2. Analysis 143  
  4.5.2.3. Grammaticalization 145  
  4.6. Summary 147  
  Notes to Chapter 4 148  
 
Chapter 5 On the Pluperfect: Does It Represent the Pre-Preterite Tense? 154
  5.0. Introduction 154  
  5.1. Arguments against the Claim that the Pluperfect Can Represent the Pre-Preterite Tense 158  
  5.1.1. Two Phenomena 158  
  5.1.2. Current Relevance 160  
  5.2. Explanation Based on Temporal Schemata of the Pre-Perfect and Pre-Preterite Tenses 165  
  5.3. Further Related Phenomena 170  
  5.3.1. Indirect Speech 170  
  5.3.2. After-Clauses 172  
  5.3.3. Narrative Texts 175  
  5.4. Conclusion 179  
  Notes to Chapter 5 180  
 
Chapter 6 Tense Forms and DTP Adverbials 182
  6.0. Introduction 182  
  6.1. Klein's (1992) P-Definiteness Constraint 183  
  6.1.1. What Is the P-Definiteness Constraint? 183  
  6.1.2. Some Problem(s) with Klein's P-Definiteness Constraint 184  
  6.2. The Revised P-Definiteness Constraint 186  
  6.3. Explanation for the (In)Compatibility of Perfect Tenses with DTP Adverbials 189  
  6.3.1. The Present Perfect Tense Represented by the Present Perfect Form 189  
  6.3.2. The Future Perfect Tense Represented by the Present Perfect Form 191  
  6.3.3. The Past Perfect Tense Represented by the Pluperfect 192  
  6.3.4. Modal Perfect Forms 196  
  6.3.5. Apparent Problems 197  
  6.3.6. Summary 200  
  6.4. The Generalized Version of the Revised P-Definiteness Constraint and Other Tense Forms 200  
  6.4.1. The Revised P-Definiteness Constraint as a More General Constraint 200  
  6.4.2. Future Time Expressions and the GRPD Constraint 201  
  6.4.3. Present Simple Forms and the GRPD Constraint 206  
  6.4.4. Two Solutions 207  
  6.5. Concluding Remarks 211  
  Notes to Chapter 6 212  
 
Chapter 7 Does Doc Brown Know Which Expression Takes Us Back to the Future: Be Going To or Will? 216
  7.0. Introduction 216  
  7.1. Facts 218  
  7.1.1. Differences in Meaning 218  
  7.1.2. Syntactic Environments 219  
  7.2. Temporal Schema 221  
  7.2.1. Dual Structure 222  
  7.2.2. Reality and Non-Reality 224  
  7.2.3. Modality and Proposition Domain 225  
  7.3. Internal Temporal Structure 227  
  7.3.1. Will-Sentences 227  
  7.3.2. Be Going To-Sentences 228  
  7.4. Temporal Focus 231  
  7.5. Explanation 233  
  7.5.1. Differences in Meaning 233  
  7.5.1.1. Near vs. Remote Future 233  
  7.5.1.2. Assured vs. Contingent Future 235  
  7.5.1.3. Future Performance of Present Situation vs. Present Prediction of Future Situation 235  
  7.5.2. Syntactic Environments 236  
  7.5.2.1. If-Clauses 236  
  7.5.2.2. Stative Predicates 238  
  7.5.2.3. Imperatives 239  
  7.5.2.4. Already 241  
  7.6. Grammaticalization / Subjecti?cation 243  
  7.6.1. Further Facts 244  
  7.6.2. Be Going To 245  
  7.6.3. Will 250  
  7.6.4. Predictive Be Going To and Will 253  
  7.6.5. The Interpretation Mechanism of Will and Be Going To 255  
  7.6.6. Summary 258  
  7.7. Be Going To and Will in the Past Tense 259  
  7.8. Concluding Remarks 260  
  Notes to Chapter 7 261  
 
Chapter 8 The Mechanism of Interpreting Tenses in Indirect Speech Complement Clauses 266
  8.0. Introduction 266  
  8.1. Previous Analyses 267  
  8.1.1. The Sequence-of-Tenses Rule Analysis 267  
  8.1.2. The Relative Time Analysis 268  
  8.1.2.1. Smith (1978, 1981b) 268  
  8.1.2.2. Declerck (1991b, 1995) 269  
  8.1.3. Summary 272  
  8.2. An Alternative Analysis 272  
  8.2.1. Hirose's Theory of Reported Speech 273  
  8.2.2. Justi?cation and Extension in Terms of the Compositional Tense Theory 276  
  8.2.3. Explanation 279  
  8.2.4. Two Readings of Unbounded Sentences and Temporal Focus 281  
  8.2.5. Homophonous vs. Polysemous 283  
  8.3. Further Related Issues 284  
  8.3.1. Present Tenses in Complement Clauses 284  
  8.3.2. Future in the Past 285  
  8.3.3. Past Tenses in When-Clauses 286  
  8.3.4. Past Tenses in the Future 289  
  8.4. Conclusion 291  
  Notes to Chapter 8 291  
 
PART III PREVIOUS APPROACHES TO THE ENGLISH TENSE SYSTEM
 
Chapter 9 Critique of Previous Studies 298
  9.0. Introduction 298  
  9.1. Reichenbachian Approaches 299  
  9.1.1. Reichenbach (1947) 299  
  9.1.1.1. Reichenbach's Analysis 299  
  9.1.1.2. Problems with Reichenbach's Analysis Solved by the Compositional Tense Theory 300  
  9.1.2. Hornstein (1977, 1990) 305  
  9.1.2.1. Hornstein's Analysis 305  
  9.1.2.2. Problems with Hornstein's Analysis Solved by the Compositional Tense Theory 307  
  9.1.3. Smith (1978, 1981b) 311  
  9.1.3.1. Smith's Analysis 312  
  9.1.3.2. Problems with Smith's Analysis Solved by the Compositional Tense Theory 314  
  9.1.4. Summary 317  
  9.2. Comrie (1981, 1985) 317  
  9.2.1. Comrie's Analysis 317  
  9.2.2. Problems with Comrie's Analysis Solved by the Compositional Tense Theory 318  
  9.3. Declerck (1986, 1991a, 1991b, 1995, 1997) 324  
  9.3.1. Declerck's "Temporal Domain" Analysis 325  
  9.3.2. Problems with Declerck's Analysis Solved by the Compositional Tense Theory 328  
  9.3.3. Summary 336  
  9.4. Klein (1992, 1994) 336  
  9.4.1. Klein's "Compositional Semantic" Analysis 336  
  9.4.2. Problems with Klein's Analysis Solved by the Compositional Tense Theory 340  
  9.4.3. Summary 343  
  Notes to Chapter 9 343  
 
Conclusion 350
 
References 353
  Sources of Data 363  
  Dictionaries 364  
 
Index 365


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